Introduction
Sediment Production and
Classification
Sediment Transport and
Refinement
Sediment Depositional
Environments
Classic Depositional Sites
of
The
Lithification Process
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary Facies
Marine
Transgressions and Regressions
Reading the Sedimentary
Rock Record
Sedimentary-related Mineral
Resources
Important Vocabulary Words
II.
Introduction:
A. Sedimentary
Rocks and Sediment on Earth
1)
Constitute a small part of the Earth’s crust
(~5%)
2)
But they cover much of the Earth’s surface
·
Nearly all of the seafloor (~ 95%)
·
Much of the continents (~75%).
B. The Origin and
Development of Sedimentary Rocks
1) Are a major part of the Earth’s rock
cycle.
2) The Sedimentary Processes of the rock
cycle include
·
Weathering
·
Erosion
·
Deposition
·
Burial
·
Compaction
·
Lithification
of
any preexisting rock found at or near the Earth’s surface.
C. There are Two
Primary Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
·
Detrital
· Chemical
1) Classification
of detrital sedimentary rocks is based
primarily on texture (sediment
size).
2)
Classification of chemical sedimentary rocks is based
mainly
by composition (mineralogy).
D. The Formation of Sedimentary Rock is Controlled
Primarily by Depositional Environment
1) The Earth has a wide variety of depositional settings
·
Glacial
·
River/Stream
·
Desert
·
Alluvial Fans
·
Beach
·
Delta
·
Lagoon
·
Tidal Flats
·
Continental Shelf
·
Submarine Fan
·
Organic Reef
·
Deep Marine
E. Sedimentary Rocks are Characteristically Layered.
1) Sedimentary rocks form characteristic
layered structures
that are termed “beds” or “strata” and “formations”.
2) Places
like the
stacks of sedimentary
strata, which display a wide variety
of rock types, structures, depositional settings,
and ages.
F.
The Physical and Chemical Nature of Sedimentary
Strata Provide Clues to:
1) Source Rock
2) Sediment's Mode of Transport
3) Depositional Environment
4)
Age of the rock
G. Several Groups of Important Mineral Resources Are
Found in Sedimentary Rocks and
Sediments
III.
Sediment Production and Classification
A. All Sedimentary rocks originate from preexisting
rock
that has
undergone some degree of weathering and erosion,
i.e.
sediment.
1) Define
weathering and erosion.
2)
Contrast weathering and erosion.
3) Examples
of this process occurring in nature
4) See
Fig 6.3, pg 159
B. What is Sediment? Defined: Solid particles derived by
chemical and mechanical weathering of preexisting
earth material.
1) Three types of Sediment - Detrital, Chemical, and
Biochemical
C. The Major Types of Sediment - (determined by origin)
1) Detrital -
derived directly from preexisting rock via
both,
mechanical weathering (grains of ground-up original
composition source material); and chemical weathering
(altered rock-derived clays).
Examples: river gravel, quartz
beach sand and lagoonal clays
3) Chemical - derived secondarily from the precipitation of
new minerals from ion-rich aqueous solutions, e.g.
seawater,
(ions originated from weathered/dissolved rock
material).
Examples: calcareous and siliceous
sea-bottom oozes
4) Biochemical - derived from organisms precipitating new
minerals from aqueous solutions, e.g., seawater,
(ions originated
from
weathered/dissolved rock material).
Examples: shells, skeletons, and
reefs
D. Classifying Detrital Sediment
1) Classification primarily based on
particle size.
2) Secondary classification
based on composition.
3) Sediment Size and Names
--- See Table 6.1
>2mm
= gravels --- large
2mm - 1/16mm =
sand --- medium
1/16mm - 1/256mm
= silt --- small
< 1/256mm
= clay --- very small
E. General Relationship between sediment size and
particle composition:
· Boulders, cobbles, and
gravels consist of rock fragments.
· Sand and silt consist mostly
of mineral fragments.
·
Clay-sized particles consist mainly of clay minerals.
IV. Sediment Transport and Refinement
A. Sediment transport and deposition follow/overlap with
weathering and erosion in the rock cycle (see rock cycle
diagram).
B. What is Sediment Transport? Defined: The movement of
detrital and chemical
sediments by natural agents and
processes.
C. What is Sediment Refinement? Defined: The physical
changes in size, shape, and
size distribution of detrital
sediment during transport by the processes of
abrasion and
changing transport agent energies over time.
· Size Reduction -----
abrasion
· Rounding ------ abrasion
· Sorting ----- changes in transport agent energy.
D. Agents of Sediment Transportation
1) Running/Moving Water
· Sheet flow, streams, rivers,
waves, currents
· By far the dominant
transport agent on the planet.
· Best at reducing (abrading),
rounding and sorting
· Dominant agent of marine and
fluvial environments.
2)
Wind
· A dominant agent in deserts
· Good at reducing (abrading),
rounding, and sorting
· Removes clay/silt, pushes
sand, trouble with gravel
· Agent of dune formation
3) Ice (glaciers)
· Active agent in high
mountains and polar regions
· Excellent reducer (abrading
and milling)
· Poor sorting agent
4) Gravity (mass wasting movements)
Local agent in areas of slope
instability +/- flooding
Poor at reducing, rounding,
and sorting
5) Volcanic eruptions (blast effect)
Move tremendous amounts of
material in short time
V. Sediment Depositional Environments
A. What is a Sediment Depositional
Environment?
Defined: Any geographic area in which sediment is
deposited.
B. Variations in Depositional Environments
1) The Earth has a wide variety of depositional environments.
2) Each depositional environment has a unique
combination
of active transport agents, surface topography, physical,
chemical,
and biological processes, that together, impart
distinctive characteristics
to the deposited sediment.
3) Depositional settings are classified according to
prevailing
geographic conditions.
·
continental vs. marine,
·
high energy vs. low energy,
·
detrital-rich vs. detrital-starved,
·
wind vs. water vs ice vs. gravity-deposited.
C. Classification
of Depositional Environments
1) Three major depositional settings (see Fig. 6.5, pg. 161)
§ Continental
§ Transitional
§ Marine
2) Continental - Interior/Non-marine
· Glacial
·
Aluvial
· Desert dunes
· Streams, rivers, floodplains
(fluvial)
3) Transitional - Shorelines
§ Deltas
§ Lagoons/Estuaries
§ Beaches
4) Marine - Offshore/Interior Marine
· Barrier islands
· Continental Shelf
· Offshore reefs
· Submarine fans
· Deep-sea basins
VI. Classic Present-day Depositional Sites
of North
·
·
· Eastern Seaboard
· Basin and
VII. Classic Ancient Depositional Sites of
· West
· Rocky Mountains/Colorado
Plateau
VIII. The Lithification Process - Turning Sediments
Into Rock
A. What is Lithification? Defined: A series of processes,
including burial, compaction and cementation,
whereby
sediment is converted to solid rock.
B. Burial ( > P and >T) + Compaction (reduced of pore space)
C. Cementation = Chemical precipitation of new mineral
crystals material
between the sediment particles.
1) Cements include calcite,
silica, and iron oxide.
2) Cement material comes from ions
in the pore fluids
and/or circulating groundwater.
IX. Types of Sedimentary Rocks
A. What is a Sedimentary Rock?
Defined: Rock consisting of cemented
detrital and/or chemical
sediment derived from one or more processes
below:
1) The direct chemical and
mechanical weathering of
preexisting rock (detritus);
2) From the direct
precipitation of minerals from
solution (chemical);
3) Minerals secreted by organisms (bio-chemical).
B.
Sedimentary rocks are classified according to the
type(s) of sediment they contain.
1) Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
§ Cemented aggregates of
detrital (clastic) particles
(See Figs. 6.6 and 6.8a - pgs 162-163)
§ Exhibit "clastic" textures
§ Classification based on
particle sizes
§ Examples include
conglomerate, sandstone, & shale
2)
Chemical/Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
§ Cemented aggregates of new, chemically-/ bio-
chemically precipitated (crystalline)
particles.
§ Exhibit
"crystalline" textures
(See Fig. 6.8b - pg 163)
§ Classification based primarily on composition
§ Examples include limestone and chert
3)
Sedimentary Rock Classification Chart -- Table 6.2
C.
Detrital or "Clastic" Sedimentary Rocks
1) Form by a multi-step process of
deposition, burial,
compaction, and cementation
of detrital sediments.
2) Exhibits a "clastic" texture is defined as an aggregate
of
distinct angular to
rounded particles that are held
together by
a matrix cement. (see Fig. 6.8a; pg
163)
3) Classification based on size of clasts. (see Table 6.2)
4) There are five general detrital
sedimentary rock types:
·
Breccias --- Angular gravels with a sandy matrix
·
Conglomerates -- Rounded gravels
with a sandy matrix
·
Sandstones -- Dominantly Sand
·
Siltstones -- Dominantly Silt
·
Mudstones -- Mix of Silt and Clay
·
Shales -- Dominantly Clay
5) Cements can be calcite, silica, and iron oxide -
depends on the
pore
fluid chemistry in the depositional/burial environment.
6) Quartz is the dominant mineral in the
conglomerates and
sandstones. WHY?
7) Clay minerals dominate the mudstones
and shales. WHY?
8) Note that 40% of all detrital rocks are
shales and siltstones.
9) Rock type is dependent on depositional
environment.
· Breccias --- High energy; very close
to sediment source.
· Conglomerates -- High energy; further from source.
· Sandstones -- Medium energy;
water/wind transport.
· Siltstones -- Low energy; water/wind
transport
· Mudstone/Shales - V. low energy; water/wind
transport.
10) Detrital (Clastic) Sedimentary rocks form in a
wide variety of
depositional settings. (See
Figs 6.5 and 6.16)
D.
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
1) Form by a multi-step process
starting with chemical
precipitation of new minerals out of solution, which
form thick
accumulations (layers) of the loose chemical
sediments, that in
turn, become cemented together with cements derived
from local
pore fluids or compounds found in circulating
fluids.
2) Exhibits a "crystalline"
texture
is defined as an interlocking
mosaic of mineral crystals
that are held together, in part, by a
matrix cement. (see Fig. 6.8b; pg 163)
3) Classification based on Composition. (see Table 6.2, pg 164)
4) Four general chemical/biochemical sedimentary rock types:
Limestones
and Dolostones - The Carbonates
· Calcite - CaCO3
· Dolomite - (Ca, Mg)CO3
· Biochemical source-dominant
· Fossil-rich
Chert - Silica
· Microcrystalline quartz -
SiO4
· Silica-producing organisms
· Varieties include flint and
jasper
Evaporites - Precipitated Salts
· Halide - NaCl (table salt)
· Sylvite - KCl (table salt substitute)
· Salt residuals of dried-up
lakes and tidal flats
Coal - Compressed, altered land
plant remains
· Carbon-rich, organic
compounds
· Forms in bogs and swamps
with no free oxygen
· Increasing P+T (burial) coal
changes form from:
peat to
lignite to bituminous to anthracite.
X. Sedimentary Structures
A.
Layered stacks of “strata” contain sedimentary
features (structures) that provide clues to its:
1) depositional environment,
2) sediment mode of transport, and
3) (rock) age.
B. Distinct Sedimentary Structures
1) graded bedding
2) sorted and unsorted bedding
3) cross-stratification
4) ripple marks
5) fossils
XI. Sedimentary Facies -- Understanding
Variations In
Depositional Environments Though Time & Space
A. What is a Sedimentary
Facies? Defined: Bodies
of sediment
that possess distinctive physical,
chemical, and biological
attributes, that are reflective of the
agents and processes that
were active at the site of deposition.
·
Each Sedimentary Facies Reflects its
Respective
Depositional Environment
B.
Depositional environments form an irregular, yet
interconnecting continuum across Earth’s surface. In many
cases one depositional
environment grades laterally into
another. Therefore, the
sedimentary facies that represent one
depositional environment will grade (change) laterally into
another sedimentary facies across the surface of the Earth.
(See Fig 6.16 p. 169.)
·
A very important geologic observation is
that, like everything else
our dynamic planet, depositional environments
change over time.
·
Applying the well-tested principle of uniformatarianism,
regional
scale
depositional environments change gradually and this change
occurs laterally through time
across the Earth’s surface.
·
So, two things are happening to a
depositional basin through time:
1)
Sediment piles up forming a column (stack) that
can be upwards of thousands of meters
thick.
Each layer (bed) of sediment has a
specific
facies.
2)
Sediment facies shift laterally (with their
distinctly matched depositional
environment).
C. Gradual
changes of a depositional environment over
time in a given geographic location, are
due to systematic
change in the physical, chemical, and
biological processes
and transport agents that occur at that
location. The major
causes for these gradual changes in
depositional conditions
are:
1)
Changes in sea level
2)
Changes in climate
3)
Changes in relief/topography
4)
Changes in tectonics
D. Earth's Most Extensive
Depositional Setting is the
Marine Environment
·
Open Marine (Continental Shelves) and
Interior
(Continental
Seaways)
·
This is the final resting place for most of
the detrital
material
being shed off the continents.
·
Parallel belts of depositional marine
environments
ü
Near shore - Sand-dominated
ü
Near offshore - Silts and mud-dominated
ü
Far offshore - Fine clay and carbonate-dominated
·
See Fig. 6.16
1)
The greatest long-term influence on shifting marine
depositional environments is changes
in sea level.
2) Causes of Sea Level
Changes
·
Rising Seas = "marine transgression"
ü
more water in ocean basins (ice caps melt)
ü
continent sinking
Falling
Seas = "marine regression"
ü
less water in ocean basins (ice caps grow)
ü
continental uplift
E. Marine
Transgressions and Regressions
1)
Systematic Changes in Rising and Falling Sea Level
Reflected
in the Rock Record
2)
Marine Transgression = Sea Level Rise
ü
Shorelines shifts (moves) inland
ü
Depositional environments parallel to
shoreline shift
Inland.
ü
Sedimentary facies parallel to shoreline
shift inland.
ü
Offshore sedimentary facies will start
depositing on
top of near short deposits over
time.
ü
The resultant sedimentary column will have
the near
shore facies on bottom, the
near/offshore facies
in the middle, and topped by far offshore facies.
ü
This called a transgressive sequence.
ü
See Figure 6.17a-d, pg 170
3)
Marine Regression = Sea Level Drop/Fall
ü
Exact Opposite of Transgression (see above)
ü
This is called a regressive sequence
ü
See Figure 617e-h, pg 170
XII.
Recognizing Marine Transgressions and Regressions
in the Rock Record
1)
Distinctive Sedimentary Facies Sequences in the
rock record indicative either, a marine
transgression or
regression.
2)
The
XIII. Sedimentary-related Mineral
Resources
1) sand and gravel
(construction),
2) clay (ceramics),
3) limestone chalk (cement and
steel production),
4) silica (glass),
5) placer gold, diamonds, tin,
and uranium (fuel and weapons),
6) petroleum and natural gas,
oil shale, tar sands, and coal
7) banded iron formations.
XIV. Important Vocabulary Words
abrasion/abrading
bed
(bedding)
biochemical
sed' rock
breccia
burial
carbonate
rock
cementation
chemical
sed' rock
clastic
clasts
clastic
sed' rock
clay
(clay-size)
compaction
conglomerate
cross-bedding
depositional
environment
detritus
detrital
sed' rock
dolostone
evaporite
fossil
graded
bedding
gravel
limestone
lithification
marine
transgression
marine
regression
mud
cracks
ripple
marks
rounding
sand
(sand-size)
sediment
sedimentary
facies
sedimentary
rock
sedimentary
structure
silt
(silt-size)
sorting
strata
(stratification)